Defining left behind places: an internationally comparative poset analysis

There is considerable debate in the literature as to the precise definition of 'left-behind' places, and the appropriate metrics for identifying them, and for successfully targeting regional policy interventions. We propose an evaluation structure for 'left-behindness' based on Amartya Sen's capability approach, and argue that the diversity of criteria should not be seen as a shortcoming, but rather as a richness to be explored. We show, through the use of 'posets' and Hasse diagrams, that there are several distinct 'structures of left-behindness' across European NUTS 2 regions, revealing spatial imbalances that do not conform to a 'one size fits all' narrative.